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“Looking in a different
way” Project
VS/2004/0553 – SI2.390377 |
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Methodological guidelines for the production of
educational materials for an online learning community
Index
E-learning methods and
methodological approaches
Writing for e-learning:
some fundamental notions
By
Gabriella Antonucci and Simonetta De Fazi, with the contribution of Pauline van
den Bosch
The guidelines in this document correspond to a
two-fold goal:
Þ to
share some details related to e-learning methods that characterize the
production and use of the educational materials we will realize;
Þ to
help us solve the problems associated with the many different languages and
cultures that characterize our network.
We are a multilingual community, and a learning
community wishing to emphasize the difference in our professional contexts, in
a small way through meetings and workshops, and in a more significant way
through remote work.
Therefore, the goal is to establish some basic rules,
without having to propose a common standard or format for the production of the
materials.
If you feel it is necessary we can integrate this
document once the products to realize, and the methods with which they will be
developed, have been defined.
The first part of the document contains some
methodological dimensions closely associated with the use of e-learning
methods.
The second, with something in common with the first
part, which we do not want to eliminate, contains some operative guidelines,
relevant to the organization of the contents and writing the texts.
Remember that from a technical and formal point of
view, additional guidelines will be drawn up to guide us in the use of the
platform for the materials produced (which has already been identified as the
Moodle platform).
Many of you are probably already aware of the notions
mentioned here and probably also have a significant experience in the
production of e-learning courses. In this case, we will be glad to receive your
input on the guidelines we propose.
E-learning methods and
methodological approaches
Þ What is e-learning and
how is it qualified? Also with respect to distance learning.
Þ Which methodological approaches are closely associated with e-learning methods?
Þ Which objective and
subjective dimensions are involved?
Þ What is the relationship
between e-learning and "traditional" training?
Þ
Producing educational materials: some guidelines
What is e-learning and how is it qualified, also with respect to
distance learning?
Firstly,
we can say that e-learning is an evolved form, with a wider "reach"
with respect to distance learning. In fact, even a book can be considered an instrument
used in distance learning. Therefore e-learning isn't a (different) method of
transferring (educational and informative) content, but an educational
method that uses the potential offered by new technologies (NTI), based on an
"approach through competence". The instrument (NTI) and the
approach (through competence) mean the e-learning techniques develop around the
subject of the learning, using the competence of the same and establishing the
educational courses for the development of self-analysis and self-assessment.
In e-learning, the technological and educational-methodological
dimensions are not only closely related to each other but part of the same
function, while the network on which the e-learning methodology is
created refers to the use of computer networks, Internet or Intranet, as well
as a network of subjects and relations that are involved (“learning community”
and/or “professional community network”).
The
methodological approaches associated with e-learning methods
Interactivity
is without a doubt one of the main characteristics of
e-learning and therefore it should be considered more of a special educational
environment rather than a particular method of use. This is also
one of the least implemented features in current e-learning programmes. All
of the active methods developed in the educational courses, especially
those for adults, the systems for the management and development of
competence, and the strategies of cooperative learning come into
play; in other words all the methods and approaches aimed at developing
self-learning and self-assessment, together with specialized and specific
competence, in a process of interaction with others.
The amount
of attention to learning processes and metacognitive abilities, considering
each subject an "expert", with the knowledge and competence to
develop, makes the e-learning methodology, a potential that derives from the
possibilities offered by the technological instruments, all the more suitable
for custom courses. Therefore, these are tailor-made to suit the individual
subject in an active and autonomous way, also in relation to the real and
contingent requirements.
The
subject is therefore at the center of the educational course; this means that
the entire environment must be suitable for the characteristics and
requirements of the same: from the interface used and the easy
"usability", to the content and clarity, the instruments available,
and the availability of figures such as assistants/promoters, etc.
This
general principle has quite a few practical consequences for all those involved
in the course at various levels. In our case, for those who write, this means
knowing the competence and the level of competence common to the subjects
participating; it means always having opportunities, and in particular the
limits imposed by this methodology; it means adopting a certain method of
writing and paying particular attention.
The
objective and subjective dimensions involved
Anywhere,
anytime, anyplace… This sums up the greatest
advantages of e-learning: you can follow your training from where you are, at
the same time, and without having to use a particular station. Space and
time are therefore the two main dimensions involved. This is true under
many aspects. The subjects in training can manage their time autonomously,
(with the exception of the moments in which the training is provided using the
so-called synchronous method, when using a chat for example) and they can also
do the same with their space: all you have to do is to connect to an Intranet
network. This means advantages also for the organisations who use the
e-learning training method: it isn't simply a significant reduction of the
costs and times, it means being able to modify, update and integrate
educational courses much faster and easier than before; a greater number of
people can be involved; the educational and informative content can be kept in
order more effectively; continuous training plans can be realized for the
entire staff, etc.
However
there is also another level in which the dimensions of time and space are
interesting: this is relevant to the method where the form and content
interact, the hypertextual method.
Hypertext
is a text made up of blocks of words (or images) connected electronically on
many paths, in an open and perpetually incomplete form. Hypertext makes it
possible to organize knowledge in different ways with respect to the
traditional way, in other words using the horizontal, linear and consequential
method. In fact hypertext develops vertically and with a net-like structure:
the portion of text that appears on the screen is only a tiny part with respect
to the numerous pages and/or windows that can be opened in the reading path and
which constitute the development or other paths.
The
relationship between e-learning and "traditional" training
The
relationship between e-learning and “traditional” training must not be seen as
an alternative. Network teaching methodology cannot replace training with the
presence of the tutor; it can support and consolidate the same though,
enriching and broadening the offer.
The two
typologies in fact are normally integrated in educational courses that
alternate training with the presence of the tutor and online training.
Opportunities and limits established by
the special methods of use thanks to computer technologies
Above we
mentioned some of the opportunities offered by e-learning methods, associated
with a usability of the educational courses that is autonomous, in time and
space, the “customization” of the same and the possibility of using interactive
and multimedia instruments.
These
possibilities however impose just as many limits. Reading on the screen is
harder on the eyes that doing the same on paper. The resolution is lower and
you will read 25% slower. Based on experience, we can easily see the difference
between scrolling through text on the screen and leafing through printed text.
The term “scroll” isn't used by chance: it's very rare to actually read text on
the screen all the way through. Normally you will scroll through it, finding
key words or phrases that convey the overall sense of the text. Reading is
faster and targeted, also because it's harder to keep your attention focused.
With
respect to writing, these aspects impose the observance of a few basic principles.
In training on line, but more generally on the web, the text and graphics,
structure and organization of the site and/or the modules and/or information,
are inseparable.
The
bond between form and content is made in this limiting environment. This is why
it is necessary to proceed with the strict formation of a correct logical,
formal and graphical organization of the content; identifying the links between
the same; and organizing the in-depth study. The brevity and clarity of texts,
the exemplarity of titles and summaries, the identification of the key-words
(or meta-tags), are other essential elements.
Obviously,
the environment offered by an Intranet network, rather than a public Internet
web site, involves different opportunities and limits. An Intranet network is
mainly used for work. The possibility of being able to count on shared
knowledge and contexts doesn't diminish, but rather increases the need for
clarity, readability and usability. Therefore, in Intranet longer documents can
be stored and in an integral form. The method and basic limits remain the same:
to create guided courses, realize a useful service, simplify the work of
others, and give all the participants access to the resources. This means that
the documents are organized, the titles will be clear, their content will be
made evident by a small abstract or with key-words. Links will eventually be
activated between the same (in order of content or author), and this will be
done in a simple and direct form and language; the environments will have the
same informative structure, creating a navigation guide, etc.
Producing educational materials: some guidelines
Bearing in
mind the basic suggestions and rules of “writing for e-learning”, we will
provide some brief guidelines to underline the central role that must be given
in particular to some dimensions involved in the organization of the production
of educational materials.
For
each general theme, the following must be envisaged:
·
the definition of/focus on the
theme
·
the outline of the goals to reach
with that theme
·
the outline of the envisaged
organization in subjects and/or key-contents
·
the reference to a concrete
experience, closely associated with the indicated theme, studied in-depth by
those who will be producing the materials
·
the outline and, where possible,
the description of:
-
the methodological materials and
instruments relevant to the theme in question
-
the work exercises or paths for
creating exercises
·
in-depth study and references to
related themes (key-words, reading, opening new directions of research and work
in progress)
·
materials of support (glossary,
bibliography, sitography, reporting experiences, documents of interest).
Writing for e-learning: some fundamental notions
The
educational environment has a significant impact on the method and the
possibility of learning: it is harder to read a text on a
monitor than on paper; the resolution is lower and reading is 25% slower. For
the users this means:
·
faster and targeted reading, because
it's harder to concentrate your attention;
·
a method of reading that isn't
sequential;
·
a distinct tendency to “scroll”
read (looking for key or underlined points);
·
faster and targeted reading due to
the times and the possible difficulty in connection.
This is
due to some typical characteristics of e-learning methods, such as:
Þ the
in depth development of the hypertextual method,
Þ the
possibility of navigating in educational routes in a tailor-made, autonomous
and targeted way
Þ the
possibility of using several levels of in-depth study…
this
dictates organising the information with a more precise and clear way.
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Hypertextuality |
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Modularity |
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Speed of
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The synthesis |
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The quality
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ü
Thinking of the content in visual terms
ü
Writing significant micro-contents
Þ
The effectiveness of the texts
Þ
Some stratagems for verification
In
extreme synthesis, three actions can act as a guide in the construction of any
educational course (from the most structured to the most “open”):
1. Structuring
the information
2. Thinking
of the content in visual terms
3. Writing
significant micro-contents
It is
necessary to define the logical structure of the text, organise the
contents and the navigation path, in the following phases:
Þ
identifying the hierarchy of the
information (not only in order of content, clearly
indicating the key-concepts, but also on the basis of the different levels of
in-depth study proposed)
Þ
structuring and dividing the text (dividing
the text in short paragraphs that correspond more or less to one screen-page,
and giving the same a title is a great help to read and understand the
concepts)
Þ
show/provide a visual map of how
the text is structured
Þ the
internal connections of the structure
Þ
prepare “service” materials for
each course proposed: bibliography, sitography, glossary,
media library, interviews with experts, etc.
Þ
provide on the spot info about
navigation: provide selftest/self navigation means in order to
help the learnerfind hid own way through the materials
Thinking of the content in visual terms
The text and graphics should be created at the same
time: the nature of the web is characterized by the union of
graphics and text; the formatting of the text is essential for the effective
“usability” of the document to which it is applied.
Some guidelines to observe:
Þ
underlining key-words
or parts of the text that express key concepts (using ad hoc formatting: bold
type, boxes, colors, spacing, character dimensions, etc.)
Þ
content per “paragraph”
Þ
make good use of the space
(articulation of the empty and full space: using a portion of text between
empty spaces makes a page easier to read)
Þ
graphics format and a standard of
presentation for the parts of a complex document (whether
this is an actual educational module or hypertext)
Þ
links: avoid
misuse; use titles that are as precise as possible; if possible provide the
link to the page of interest and not the home page of a site, in the case of
external links; check and update them periodically
Þ
editing.
Formatting characters: some
advice
bold
type is very effective for highlighting portions of text:
in this way you can bring the attention of the reader to the key concepts in
the text. For this reason it is important not to use it too much, especially
for long portions of text.
italics
are very effective in printed text, but are
less so on the screen where this sort of effect does little to highlight text.
Its use isn't particularly recommended, but it can be used especially in the
parts of the text that will be printed. Italics seem
to effective on the screen in combination with a highlighting color.
underlining
isn't used in the web to highlight text as it is used to show links. In fact it
is hardly ever used.
Do not use more than 2 highlighting (bold, italic,
color, etc.) features at
the same time (not
effective).
Format characteristics
Do not use full
justified text (difficult to read on the screen, because you have no “grip” on the text).
lists
and dotted lists: when you need to provide a lot of
information on a certain subject, it is a good idea to use a dotted or numbered
list. Lists are easier to read (if formatted properly) from a visual point of
view, and easier to understand as far as the content goes (in fact they make
the relevant dimensions and the relation between the same evident)
indents:
these help to highlight portions of text
tables:
these let you organise the content inside a text box, with the advantage of
distinguishing the contents and representing a graphic variation that makes the
text easier to read and remember
colours
and combinations of colours: these can be used to highlight
text but also to show the different levels of articulation of the text. They
should be used carefully and with discretion, choosing harmonious combinations
that are easy to read
use icons / symbols to pay attention to certain text with a specific function (exercise, notes, definitions etc.) and use these
consequently.
Writing significant micro-contents
Use titles, subtitles, and shorts summaries that give an idea of the content of
the portions of text (in the case of educational modules: of the contents of
the modules, in other words of the unit and the envisaged in-depth study)
Þ in this sense it may be useful to
imagine the page as if it were a newspaper article, describing the content of
the text with a title (not fictitious...), a subtitle, a subheading, an
abstract; articulating the same in titled paragraphs if necessary
Þ in a practical community or
intranet, the synthesis can also be reached with reference to “gergo” or
specific expressions of the professional or corporate context.
Some
simple recommendations, such as the following, are all the more important in a
multilingual community. The clarity of the texts is essential to guarantee the
greatest understanding and therefore, participation.
Write short texts (max 25 /
30 lines)
Thirty lines are roughly half a page of text and more
or less the amount displayed on a screen
Þ
scrolling should be reduced to a
minimum as a rule (especially in the realisation of educational modules)
Þ
with the hypertextual method you
can concentrate on the first informative level, making the access to the
additional and/or in-depth information optional (with a link). Not too much hyperlinks on 1 page.
write
short texts (max 25 / 30 words), divided in
short paragraphs
write
simple, short and direct phrases
always
indicate the subject
preferably
use the active verbal form
preferably
use simple verbal methods and tenses
limit or
avoid the use of subordinate prepositions
be careful
with punctuation
use dotted lists
do not save on full stops
use common
words and/or create a glossary for specific terms (in
relation to the contents), for example
with hypertext tables
avoid
long-winded and unusual expressions, technical or specialised terms when these
aren't necessary and/or create a glossary for specific terms
(in relation to the contents)
write out
acronyms and abbreviations
use, for longer
and more in depth theoretical text, downloadable
and printable documents such as pdf files.
The effectiveness of the texts
Give an
idea of the end at the beginning (focus the idea and arouse
interest)
Start the
text with a significant phrase
Use a
direct and informal style
Provide
examples associated with the context of the receivers
Direct the
theme towards the interests of the receivers
Use more
verbs than nouns
Use
concrete expressions rather than abstract terms
Use the
positive form and avoid double negatives
Ignoring the limits of space: writing
texts that are too long, which, once published on-line, will need to be
scrolled through using the scroll bar; or use pdf
downloadable files.
Losing
touch with the key concepts: avoid dealing with several key
concepts at the same time and placing them after long introductions, detracting
from the directness and clarity of the communication;
Writing
in sequence: using the same writing method as on printed
paper, not using the functional characteristics of hypertext, presuming the
reading will be done in a sequence and, therefore, using logic connections
between concepts with expressions such as:
therefore, so, as mentioned-above, etc.
Using
a language which is redundant and indirect: the overuse
of nominalizations (such as “realisation of the plan” rather than “planning”)
and the use of adjectives, gerund and subordinate clauses;
Ignoring
the educational potential associated with the graphic representation of the
contents: using the textual forms and not using
graphics to explain concepts and provide information;
Using
editing inappropriately: overusing the instruments
for formatting the text (bold type, underlining, italics, colours, fonts and
dimensions of the character, etc.), without coherent and homogeneous use;
The
overuse hypertextual links: avoid generic links,
periodically check they work.
Some
stratagems for verification
First,
check the form and content of the educational product on
the basis of the methodological guidelines and rules of writing
check that the parts of the proposed course are
autonomous
verify
the structure of the proposed course: verify
the clarity and the coherence of the conceptual organization of the subjects
and in-depth study, making sure the information is complete
check
the length of the texts and that it is easy to read
and respects the key concepts
check
the clarity of the texts
check
the coherence of the editing
check
the effectiveness, clarity and conciseness of the titles
check
the links
Navigation:
·
“2 click rule”: User cannot go further away
from a central reference point than 2 clicks (2 web pages)
·
Make sure “going back” to the original page
is simple and easy.